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What are the Stages of Lung Cancer by Naeima Seddiqi
Both of the lungs may look identical but in reality they are not exactly the same. The lung on the right side is made of three parts (lobes) and the lung on the left is made of only two parts. An important muscle called the Diaphragm muscle is located exactly below the lungs. This muscle helps the lungs in the process of expansion and contraction while they take in the O2 and let out the CO2. Therefore, it can be seen how crucial the well functioning of lungs is to one’s life. The growth of abnormal cells is one of the many things that can alter the normal function of the lungs. These cells are created as a result of a mutation while cells are continuously being created. Therefore, the overtime growth of these cells can eventually transform into tumors that prevent the normal transfer of air to the blood. These abnormal cells are often at first started in the bronchi, which is the main airway of the lungs.
At the beginning stages lung cancer may not show any signs or symptoms. As the cancer develops signs start to appear. Some of these symptoms are shortness of breath, persistent coughs, coughs with blood, chest pain, weakness, and sudden unplanned weight loss. In the medical field, the seriousness of long cancer formation just as with other cancers is marked with different stages. In the hidden stage the cancer can appear in the lung fluids but no tumor can be detected.
Stages of Lung Cancer:
In stage 0 the cancer has grown enough to reach the other tissues in the lungs. In stage 1 the cancer has been able to form a small tumor that is removable with surgery. In stage 2 the tumor has grown more than the first stage but it could or could not have gotten to other parts of the lung. The stage 3 of the cancer is dangerous since it is extremely difficult for the tumor to be removed. The cancer may have been able to get to the center of the chest and outside the lungs. Therefore, this makes it harder for the cancer to be treated. Stage 4 of this cancer is the worst stage of the cancer. At this stage the cancer has been able to spread to more than one part of the body. At this stage, the cancer could have traveled to places such as brain, bones and liver.
At both stages 3 and 4 surgery may not be a resolution to the removal of the tumor. Therefore, it is best if such diseases are caught in the early stages. Chemotherapy is one of the medical procedures that people affected by this disease are treated with.
Diseases such as lung cancer are life threatening. However, in order to reduce the chances of getting affected by it there are certain percussions that people need to take. Smoking has to be avoided since it increases one’s chances of lung cancer. Eating healthy and frequent exercises can also help reduce the chances of getting affected by this disease.
References:
http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/lung-cancer/basics/definition/con-20025531
http://www.medicinenet.com/lung_cancer/article.htm
Micro Lab Report | Staphylococcus epidermidis
UNKNOWN LAB REPORT
Unknown Number 102
Christine Betlejewski
May 5, 2015
Professor Jay Snaric
Microbiology
Spring 2015
INTRODUCTION
Microorganisms are everywhere and it is important to know, not only the type of microorganism, but what effects it can have on the environment, as well as humans. Determining which microorganism a patient is infected with is essential to determining the proper course of treatment. Improper treatment will not alleviate the infliction, and it could have disastrous short and long term effects on the patient. This study was conducted using techniques learned in microbiology class to separate and identify the gram negative and gram positive bacterium contained within a test tube.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A test tube labeled “Unknown #102” was given by the Professor. The methods which have been learned thus far were applied to the unknown. All of the tests and procedures were applied using the methods outlined in the “Lab Manual for General Microbiology”, (3).
The unknown tube contained both a gram positive and a gram negative bacterium. The first step was to quadrant streak the unknown onto a nutrient agar plate in order to grow colonies and separate them. The plates were then incubated for at 37 degrees Celsius for 48 hours and the expected result was to grow colonies which could be visually identified as different. Due to unforeseeable circumstances, the plates were not checked after 48 hours and overgrowth occurred. The next step would have been to isolate the colonies into two separate colonies, place each colony onto a separate nutrient agar plate and allow them to incubate for another 48 hours at 37 degrees Celsius. Instead, another method, suggested by the Professor, (1), was applied. The growth on the original nutrient agar plate had a green hue around it; according to information provided by the Professor, (1), this suggested that the bacterium was gram (-) Psuedomonas aeruginosa. A new approach for isolating the gram positive bacterium was implemented at this time.
The second step was to begin tests to confirm bacterium 1 as P. aeruginosa as well as isolate the second bacterium. Since P. aeruginosa was already suspected, the tests which were chosen would each eliminate all other bacterium as possibilities. The gram stain for bacterium 1 revealed red rods.
To identify bacterium 1, a gelatin test was performed, by inoculating a gelatin tube with the unknown and incubating it at 37 degrees Celsius for 24 hours, to isolate P. aeruginosa as the only possible choice. Only P. aeruginosa is capable of breaking down gelatin, (4). Next, a maltose test was performed; by inoculating a maltose fermentation tube with the unknown and incubating it at 37 degrees Celsius for 24 hours. This test is done to determine if the microbe can ferment the carbohydrate maltose, (3). A negative result would eliminate all other bacterium as possibilities, (4). Finally, an oxidase test was performed as a final determination. The oxidase test determines if the Oxidase Cytochrome is present and functional, (3). P. aeruginosa is the only bacterium where there will be a positive result, (4); a positive reaction would confirm that the bacterium is P. aeruginosa, (4).
To isolate bacterium 2, a sample of the unknown was taken directly from the original test tube and streaked onto a Mannitol Salt Agar (MSA) plate. The MSA plate is selective for gram positive bacteria, therefore only the gram positive bacteria will grow, enabling said isolation. The plate was then incubated at 37 degrees Celsius for 48 hours. Once growth was established, a gram stain was performed to confirm a gram positive bacterium. The gram stain revealed purple cocci. Tests were then performed to eliminate other bacterium and confirm the final result.
The first test performed was a catalase test, to determine if the bacterium has catalase, a protective enzyme, which can destroy hydrogen peroxide, (3). If the hydrogen peroxide does not bubble when added to a sample of the bacterium on a slide (a negative result) Enterococcus faecalis can be eliminated, (4). A positive test will require further testing. Next, a urea test was performed by inoculating a urea broth with a sample from the MSA plate, to determine if the bacterium can use the compound urea as a source of carbon and energy for growth utilizing the enzyme urease, (3). A positive result would confirm Staphylococcus epidermidis as the bacterium, (4). Finally, a mannitol test was performed to confirm that the bacterium is S. epidermidis, (4). The test was performed by inoculating the mannitol broth tube with a sample from the MSA plate, to determine if the bacterium can ferment the carbohydrate mannitol as a carbon source, (3). A negative test will confirm S. epidermidis, (4).
All tests performed to determine bacterium 1 are outlined in Table I. The first test performed on the suspected gram negative bacterium was the gram stain to confirm gram negativity. Further tests were then performed to confirm suspected bacterium.
The tests performed on the unknown to confirm the negative bacterium were:
- Gram stain
- Gelatin
- Maltose
- Oxidase
All tests performed to determine bacterium 2 are outlined in Table II. The first test performed on the suspected gram positive bacterium was the gram stain to confirm gram positivity. Further tests were then performed to identify and confirm the bacterium. The tests performed to identify the gram positive bacterium were:
- Gram stain
- Catalase
- Urea
- Mannitol
RESULTS
Unknown # 102 had morphology on the original nutrient agar plate which suggested P. aeruginosa, (1). After determining that it was Gram negative, gelatin, maltose and oxidase tests were performed to isolate it from the other bacterium, (4). Table I, lists all of the biochemical tests, their purpose, reagents, observations, and results and interpretations. The results are also shown in a flow chart form in Figure 1.
After the gram positive bacterium was isolated on the MSA plate, and then confirmed through gram staining, other tests were performed to isolate it from the other bacterium, (4). Table II, lists all of the biochemical tests, their purpose, reagents, observations, and results and interpretations. The results are also shown in a flow chart form in Figure 2.
Table I: Tests and results to determine and confirm bacterium #1
TEST | PURPOSE | REAGENTS | OBSERVATIONS | RESULTS | INTERPRETATIONS |
Nutrient Agar | To isolate colonies | None | Green tint around bacterial growth | Positive | The green tint indicates the presence of Pseudomonas aeruginosa |
Gram Stain |
1. Determine if the bacterium is gram (+) or gram (-) 2. Determine the shape of the bacterium. |
1. Crystal violet 2. Gram iodine
3. Alcohol
4. Safranin |
Red rods when viewed under the microscope | Gram (-) rods | The bacterium is gram (-) |
Gelatin |
1. Isolate Pseudomonas aeruginosa as the only possible bacterium 2. Determine whether the microbe is capable of breaking down gelatin |
None |
The gelatin liquefied in the tube
|
Positive |
1. Confirmation that the bacterium is Pseudomonas aeruginosa
2. Gelatinases is present and the organism is able to break down gelatin
|
Maltose |
1. To confirm that the bacterium is Pseudomonas aeruginosa 2. To determine if the microbe can ferment the carbohydrate maltose |
None | Color change from red to yellow | Positive |
1. Further confirmation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa
2. A pH change to acidic indicating that the microbe can ferment the carbohydrate maltose as a carbon source |
Oxidase |
1. Confirmation that the bacterium is Pseudomonas aeruginosa2. To determine if the Oxidase Cytochrome is present and functional |
Oxidase | The discs turned a purple color | Positive |
1. Final confirmation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa
2. Oxidase cytochrome is present and functional |
Table II: Tests and results to determine and confirm bacterium #2
TEST | PURPOSE | REAGENTS | OBSERVATIONS | RESULTS | INTERPRETATIONS |
MSA |
1. To isolate gram (+) bacteria 2. To determine if the bacterium ferments Mannitol |
Bacteria grew and turned the agar yellow |
Positive
|
1. The bacterium is gram (+) 2. The bacterium is either Staphylococcus epidermidis or enterococcus faecalis |
|
Gram Stain | 1. To determine if the bacterium is gram (+) or gram (-)2. To determine the shape of the bacterium |
1. Crystal violet2. Iodine 3. Alcohol 4. Safranin |
Round purple grape-like clusters when viewed under the microscope |
Gram (+) cocci |
The bacterium is gram (+) |
Catalase |
1. To determine if the bacterium is Staphylococcus epidermidis or Enterococcus faecalis 2. To determine if the bacterium has catalase, a protective enzyme, which can destroy hydrogen peroxide |
Hydrogen peroxide | Bubbles formed | Positive |
1. Confirmation of Staphylococcus epidermidis
2. The bacterium contains catalase |
Urea |
1. To furtherconfirm that the bacterium is Staphylococcus epidermidis
2. To determine if the bacterium can use the compound urea as a source of carbon and energy for growth utilizing the enzyme urease |
None |
Color changed to
magenta |
Positive |
1. Further confirmation of Staphylococcus epidermidis
2. The bacterium uses the compound urea as a source of carbon and energy for growth utilizing the enzyme urease
|
Mannitol |
1. To provide final confirmation that the bacterium isStaphylococcus epidermidis
2. To determine if the bacterium can ferment the carbohydrate mannitol as a carbon source |
None | No color change | Negative |
1. Final confirmation of Staphylococcus epidermidis
2. Does not ferment mannitol as a carbon source
|
NOTE: Flowcharts were removed due to formatting issues.
Conclusion
Separating the gram negative and gram positive bacterium was an essential first step in determining the final results of unknown #102. Once the two bacteria were isolated, tests were performed to confirm the type of bacterium.
Since the original nutrient agar plate had the green hue, it was suspected that the gram negative bacteria was Pseudomonas aeruginosa, according to information provided by the Professor, (1), therefore the tests which were performed were geared to confirm that hypothesis. The gelatin, maltose and oxidase tests were performed, because each of those three tests would eliminate all other bacteria besides P. aeruginosa, (4). The gelatin and oxidase tests were both positive, eliminating all other possibilities, (4). The maltose test was negative, also eliminating all other possible bacterium, (4).
The tests performed on the gram positive bacteria were geared toward eliminating bacteria until a final result was reached. Since the gram stain revealed cocci, Bacillus cereus and Bactillus subtilis were eliminated, (4). The catalase test was positive, which eliminated Enterococcus faecalis, (4). The mannitol test was negative, leaving the only possibility as Staphylococcus epidermidis, (4). The urea test was then performed for final determination. The test was positive, therefore confirming Staphylococcus epidermidis, (4).
Discussion
Staphylococcus is a genus of bacteria characterized by its round shape. This genus can be be single cells, pairs, or more frequently, clusters resembling a bunch of grapes are found. The gram stain is positive, a purple color, further resembling grapes. The name comes from the Greek terms staphyle and kokkos, meaning “bunch of grapes”, (2). Epidermidis strains, which are coagulase-negative, produce a slime that interferes with the body’s immune defenses (phagocytosis) and cause a biofilm. S. epidermidis strains are part of the body’s normal flora and do not usually cause infections, unless a person’s immune system is suppressed. It has been shown that the bacterium may actually be beneficial. S. epidermidis a nosocomial pathogen, which is quickly becoming a major issue with implanted medical devices, such as, catheters and prosthetic devices.
The danger of a S. epidermidis results from the effects on the host. The cells can be damaged as a result of membrane-altering toxins, such as alpha, beta toxins plus leucocidin, which damage cells by making holes in their membranes, (2). A major concern with regard to S. epidermidis is that it is quickly becoming resistant to many different types of antibiotics, due to the overuse and misuse of antibiotics in the past. Currently, S. epidermidis is resistant to including Methicillin, all Penicillins, Penems, Carbapanems and Cephalosporins, (5). This makes treatment for any type of staph infection much more difficult when the pathogenic form takes over. While S. Epidermidis is usually harmless, given the right conditions, it can flourish out of control and we are left with little to nothing to treat it.
References
- Bohra, S. (2015). Conversation with Professor. Louis
- Davis, C. (n.d.). Staph Infection: Learn About Symptoms and Treatment. Retrieved May 3, 2015, emidicinehealth. Retrieved from http://www.emedicinehealth.com/staphylococcus/article_em.html
- McDonald et al. (2011). Lab Manual for General Microbiology. St. Louis Community College – Meramec. [Lab Manual]. St. Louis
- Snaric, J. (2015). St. Louis Community College – Meramec. St. Louis.
- Snaric, J. (2015, April 21). Antibiotics. Lecture conducted from, St. Louis.
What is Chronic Inflammatory Demyelination of Polyneuropathy (CIDP) by Max Price
CIDP is an extremely rare condition, caught by less than a hundred people in the entire world per year. It is considered the chronic form of Acute Inflammatory Demyelination of Polyneuropathy(AIDP), also known as Guillain Barre syndrome(GBS). The scariest part of this condition is that absolutely anyone can catch it for no reason, at least as far as scientists know as of now. GBS normally secedes an illness of some sort, viral or infectious; CIDP patients do not need a preceding illness to catch it.
When a person has CIDP, their nerve roots and peripheral nerves become inflamed and the myelin sheath protecting the nerves is torn down slowly. The more the myelin sheath is worn down, the slower your nerves are able to send signals throughout your body, which causes gradual weakness and eventually paralysis. The extremities are affected first, and it spreads medially from there. After a few weeks, you have no usable function in your fingers or toes, and your arms and legs struggle to move. A few weeks after that, you nearly can’t move at all without the assistance of another person. If not treated in time, the paralysis will eventually spread to your lungs, and cause a gradual worsening in shortness of breath until you can’t breathe at all and suffocate.
The only person that can help treat a case like this is a neurology specialist. As said before, most people, including doctors, have never even heard of this condition, and must be treated by someone who specializes in that specific field. If not treated immediately, one must undergo a dangerously heavy dosage of medical steroids, preferably Prednisone. If “dangerously heavy dosage” doesn’t give you a good enough example, I was put on a dose equaling six times the recommended dose for a full grown adult at only 15 years old. The specialist will have you undergo several tests each week to check your strength and reflexes. These tests include shock therapy as well. Shock therapy is an extremely painful procedure in which the patient is connected to several wires and has electrical impulses sent through the body in an effort to revitalize the patient’s reflexes and nervous system. The medical steroids do not have the same effect on every patient, and works better and faster for some than others. Such a high dosage of medical steroids also leaves unwanted side effects including overactive bladder, loss of sleep, highly increased appetite, and worst of all, bloating in the face and torso from a retention of water. Once the signs and symptoms seem to be disappearing, the patient will be slowly weaned off the medicine until it is no longer needed.
There is no way to prevent CIDP from affecting you. If you begin to feel weakness in your limbs and/or fingers or motor function impairment and your general doctor cannot pinpoint the cause or problem, set an appointment with a neurology specialist and find out what is causing this. The faster you find out you have it, the easier and faster you can treat it and get rid of it. Speed of diagnosis is a huge factor in getting rid of CIDP, as well as age. Patients younger than 10 or older than 30 are in greater danger than those between those ages.
Reference:
WebMD.com
Written by Max Price while taking Anatomy and Physiology at St. Louis Community College. Max Price is also an outstanding stand up comic.
What is Gingivitis Gum Disease by Inayatullah Shaheen
Did you know that, diabetes, smoking, HIV, systemic diseases, and certain medication usage can cause gingivitis gum disease? Gingivitis is the mildest from of the periodontal disease, which causes gum to become red, swollen, and bleed easily. There is usually little or no discomfort at gingivitis stage. Gingivitis gum disease can be taken care by, going to professional treatment care, or oral home care, which means, brushing teeth after each meal, and at least brush’s your teeth two time a day. Once in morning and once at night.
Sometimes it can be hard to take care our teeth’s. And untreated gingivitis can cause problem to the gums line. This problem is known as periodontitis. If this problem is ignored for long time, it can cause plague to spread and grow below gum line. As this grow below gun line, the toxin produced by the bacteria in plague irritate the gum. Once this start occurring, the inflammatory tells the body to turn on itself. This response breaks down and destroys the bone, and tissues, that supports the teeth. To understand this distraction, just imagine how termite destroys the wooden house. As the gums separates from the teeth, making a space between gum and teeth that become infected. As this disease grows bigger, the space between gum and teeth deepen, and it destroys and breaks the tissues and bones. As times goes by the teeth started to loosen and, falls out or the teeth need to be removed from a professional dentist.
There are many forms of periodontitis, the most common one are the aggressive periodontitis, chronic periodontitis, periodontitis as a manifestation of systemic diseases, and the necrotizing periodontitis disease. Aggressive periodontitis occurs when destruction of the bones starts. However chronic periodontitis results in inflammation within the supporting tissues of the teeth. Which later loosen the tooth and destroys the bones. Periodontist as a manifestation of systemic diseases often beings at young age. Systemic disease such as heart disease, diabetes diseases, and respiratory diseases. Whereas necrotizing periodontitis is an infection characterized by” necrosis of gingival tissues, periodontal ligament and alveolar bone”.
Gingivitis is a disease, if a person has it, they won’t know, and it would cause serious gum disease. Gingivitis always starts off building plaque, an invisible bacteria stuck on teeth, and gum. Brushing the teeth twice a day and flossing, will move plaque from the teeth. Plaque reforms very quickly, within under 24 hours brushing the teeth. If Plaque is remains in the mouth for two to three days goes under the gums line and forms tartar makes harder to brush away the bacteria which is formed by invisible plaque and tartar. It is impossible to remove plaque and tartar by brushing or even flossing. It takes a professional dentist or a dental hygienist to use special tools to remove and kills the invisible plaque and tartar which is formed under the gum line. If the plaque and tartar is reminded on the teeth and gum, it would started Gingivitis, which will cause irritation on the gum line. And as times goes by, the gum will be swollen and get red, and it might started bleeding if not taken care correctly. My best advice is to brush your teeth two times a day, and if possible, brush your teeth after each meal. It will help keep away plaque and tartar far away from the teeth’s.
Reference
Webmd.com
What is Marfan Syndrome by Jenna Visintine
People with Marfan’s are usually very tall and thin. Their arm span exceeds there body height and their toes and fingers are elongated. Other features a person with Marfan’s can possibly have are having a long and narrow face, crowded teeth and a curvature off the spine. Sunken chest or a chest that sticks out could also be present. Any of the features can become noticed during on an individual at any point in one’s life. Marfan syndrome affects about 1 in 5,000 worldwide. It is an inherited so the biggest risk factor is having a parent with the disorder. There is a 50% chance of passing the disorder on to one of your children if you have Marfan’s. It can affect men a women of all races.
With Marfan syndrome some may experience only mild symptoms, but others can be life threatening. Complications in the heart are the most serious. Aortic aneurysm which is when the pressure of blood leaving your heart can cause the wall of your aortic root to bulge out. That is compared to being like a weak spot in a tire. Another heart complication with the heart is valve malformations which the heart valves are not formed correctly and causes to heart to work harder to make to compensate. That can eventually lead to heart failure. Women who are pregnant and have the disease are at risk. During pregnancy the heart naturally is pumping more blood than usual and that can lead to a ruptured heart.
Lens dislocation can happen and occurs with more than half of the people with the disease. Focusing lens moves out of place if the supporting structure weakens. Retinal problems also occur then the retina is torn or detached. Lower back pain is common because of the abnormal curves in the spine. That can also have complications in rib development.
There is no cure for Marfan syndrome, but close monitoring and treatments can put off complications if started early. Glasses are usually treated for eye complications. Those with skeletal problems are sometimes given a back brace for the back pain or if really severe surgery may be required to straighten the spine. Medicines like beta blockers and ACE inhibitors are used to slow the heart down and use less force so it does not rupture, but again if really severe surgery is done on the heart.
Individuals with Marfan syndrome can enjoy life due to medical advances. Avoiding competitive sports and strenuous activity is still advised because of the heart. Exercise and activity is still important for everyone. Walking, golf, and bowling are safer alternatives. Smoking is obviously not advised due to the increased risk for lung problems and the long term harmful effects in general.
Emotional health is also very important. Anxiety, fear and stress is possible when one has Marfan syndrome. Having support from friends and family is important. Talking with a counselor can help one cope with these feelings. Support groups are also available to know you are not alone and be given support on how to live day to day life.
References:
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/mar/livingwith
http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/marfan-syndrome/basics/lifestyle-home-remedies/con-20025944
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/marfan-syndrome
What is Pernicious Anemia?
Unlike the more commonly known sickle cell anemia, the shape of the red blood cells is not altered; instead the production of red blood cells is reduced. Every day the body is exposed to a number of toxins, called antigens. These antigens are foreign substances that enter the body, such as chemicals, bacteria, viruses, or pollen. The body produces antibodies to destroy the harmful antigens. In some people, the body does not distinguish between healthy and unhealthy substances and will produce antibodies against normal body tissue and cells; this is called an autoimmune disorder. In pernicious anemia, the body produces antibodies to destroy the intrinsic factor or the cells that produce the intrinsic factor. The intrinsic factor is a protein that is produced by parietal cells, or stomach cells, which also create HCl, or stomach acid. Intrinsic factor binds to vitamin b12 and helps it dissociate so that it can be absorbed into the blood stream. Without it, b12 cannot be absorbed in the stomach, leading to an array of medical complications.
Vitamin b12 is an important for cell metabolism, DNA formation, and energy production. It also plays an important role in the formation of red blood cells, hence the development of anemia. Red blood cells bind to oxygen and distribute it to the body’s tissues through the circulatory system. A lack of blood cells means that tissues will not receive the oxygen they need to be healthy and survive. Along with the development of anemia, b12 deficiency can lead to fatigue, depression, and memory loss.
Symptoms of pernicious anemia or b12 deficiency are most commonly fatigue and weakness, abnormally rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath, numbness or tingling in the hands and feet, and chest pains. Symptoms are usually mild and not life threatening. Because they are so mild pernicious anemia can sometimes go undiagnosed. Different types of anemia can result from pernicious anemia, such as megaloblastic anemia. In most cases pernicious anemia does not develop until after the age of 30 and is most common after the age of 60. In rare cases babies can be born with the inability to produce the intrinsic factor but it usually takes decades to fully develop which is why it’s seen later on in life rather than at an early age. Over time if left untreated permanent nerve and brain damage can occur.
Several tests can be done to see if a person has pernicious anemia including a shilling test, which measures b12 deficiency, a b12 level test, a complete red blood count test, and a bone marrow examination. The most efficient way to test for pernicious anemia is the Intrinsic Factor Antibody Test, which detects the presence of antibodies that destroy the intrinsic factor. Pernicious anemia can be a genetic disorder, so some people have a predisposition for the disease. It is impossible to prevent because the reason why the body starts producing antibodies against the intrinsic factor is unknown. Although it cannot be prevented it is easily treated with either a monthly b12 injection or a daily high dose b12 supplement.
References
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000569.htm
http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/vitamin-deficiency-anemia/basics/causes/con-20019550
http://www.uchospitals.edu/online-library/content=P00080
Microbiology Unknown Paper | Materials, Results, Discussion sections
Example of How to Write an Unknown Report in Microbiology
*NOTE: Includes Introduction, Materials/Methods, Results and Discussion sections. Flowcharts in Results sections are omitted due to formatting issues.
INTRODUCTION
There are a multitude of benefits in discovering, and further exploring, the origin and characterization of omnipresent microorganisms. This includes but is not limited to, identifying the virulence and course of effective treatment of various microbes that cause disease in patients, as well as providing further research on bacteria useful in developing certain foods and antibiotics. More recently, such findings have played an important role in combatting the emergence of antibiotic drug resistance. This study was conducted by putting into practice all of the procedures and techniques that have been learned thus far in the microbiology lab curriculum for the recognition of an unknown bacterium.
MATERIALS AND METHODS:
A broth tube that contained two unknown bacteria labeled as number 125 was given out by the lab instructor on the 2nd of April, 2015. The methods that have been learned thus far for identifying microbes have been applied to this unknown. Procedures and aseptic techniques were followed and executed accordingly, as instructed in the course laboratory manual by McDonald etc. (2), unless otherwise noted.
The first test that needed to be completed was to streak the unknown out on a nutrient agar plate, using the quadrant streak method detailed in the lab manual. This was a critical first test in order to isolate and grow a pure culture from the mixed unknown. After, the streak plate was incubated and grown at 37* C, the analysis was observed. It should be noted that pure cultures labeled as ALT 4 and ALT 8, were provided by the designated instructor after multiple days and attempts made to isolate and grow pure cultures of the unknown using the appropriate streak plate technique. The three separate streak plates performed all resulted in overgrowth and thus the inability to isolate. These samples were then used to carry out all further biochemical tests and will be referenced as Unknown A and Unknown B hence forward.
A Gram stain was then performed to determine the Gram reaction of Unknown A and Unknown B. After completion of the Gram stains, the reactions were checked and compared with supplied data and information both in the course lab manual (2) and Microbiology textbook (4) to ensure accuracy. Once both unknown were identified as Gram positive or Gram negative they were returned to the incubator set at 37*C. Further detailed biochemical tests were then executed.
All of the following tests were performed on this unknown:
- Urea test
- Casein test
- Methyl Red test
- Simmons Citrate test
- Indole test
The next day, a Urea test was conducted on Unknown A, as stated in the lab manual, to test for the unknown’s ability to hydrolyze urea using the enzyme urease. A Urea broth tube was inoculated with Unknown A using a sterile, flamed loop. The tube was then placed in the 37*C incubator. Simultaneously, a Casein test was also obtained using a milk agar plate that was then streaked with Unknown A and placed upside-down in the incubator. 48 hours later, results were observed and recorded for both tests. At that time, a Methyl Red test was performed on Unknown A as outlined in the lab manual. The MR-VP broth was inoculated with the bacterium using a flamed, sterile loop and placed into the 37*C incubator. It should be noted that a control tube of MR-VP broth was also used during this test to ensure precision and was not inoculated with the unknown. Two days later, five to ten drops of methyl red, a pH indicator, was added to both the inoculated and control tube. Results were then determined.
For Unknown B, a Urea test was also performed as described above. Following the 48 hours of incubation, results were obtained and recorded. After, a Methyl Red test was conducted on Unknown B as outlined above, which determined if acid was produced as a result of glucose fermentation. It was at this time that a Simmons Citrate test was performed, according to lab manual protocol in which a sterile, flamed loop was used to streak the surface of the slant with Unknown B. A SIM tube was used to test for the unknown’s ability to produce Indole. The SIM tube was stab inoculated, as instructed in the lab manual, with unknown B using a sterile, flamed needle; All tests were placed in the 37* incubator for 48 hours and results were then determined upon observation of the urea broth, as well as the Simmons Citrate slant. The appropriate 5-10 drops of methyl red were added and the results of the test were finalized. Several drops of Indole were squeezed onto the surface of the inoculated SIM tube and the outcome was concluded.
RESULTS:
Table 1 outlines the test, purpose, reagents or media, observations, and results in list format for unknown A, numbered 125. Table 2 also illustrates the test, purpose, reagents or media, observations, and results for unknown B, numbered 125.
The following flowcharts illustrate the path taken along with the various tests, processes, and measures used to narrow down and eliminate other potential microorganisms from previous test results, in order to conclude with the identity of Unknown A and Unknown B. The results are presented using a simple and easy to follow chart, highlighting the process of elimination technique.
Table 1: Biochemical Test Results (Unknown A)
Test | Purpose | Reagents or Media | Observations | Results |
Gram Stain | To determine the Gram reaction of the bacterium | Crystal violet, Iodine, Alcohol, Safranin | Purple rods | Gram positive rods |
Urea test | To determine if bacterium can breakdown urea as indicated by a color change from tan to pinkish red | Urea broth tube | No color change; broth remained tan | Negative Urea test; organism is not able to hydrolyze urea |
Casein test | To determine if bacterium can breakdown the milk protein casein | Milk agar plate | Clearing of the white cloudiness around area of bacterial growth | Positive Casein test; organism can hydrolyze casein |
Methyl Red test | To determine if bacterium produces acid in glucose fermentation as indicated by a color change from yellow to red |
MRVP broth tube Methyl Red (pH indicator) |
Color change from yellow to red when reagent added | Positive Methyl Red test; organism is able to produce large amounts of acid from glucose fermentation |
Table 2: Biochemical Test Results (Unknown B)
Test | Purpose | Reagents or Media | Observations | Results |
Gram Stain | To determine the Gram reaction of the bacterium | Crystal violet, Iodine, Alcohol, Safranin | Pink rods | Gram negative rods |
Urea test | To determine if bacterium can breakdown urea as indicated by a color change from tan to pinkish red | Urea broth tube | No color change as broth remained same color | Negative Urea test; organism is not able to hydrolyze urea |
Simmons Citrate test | To determine if the bacterium can breakdown citrate as indicated by a color change of green to blue | Citrate slant (green) | No color change; inoculated test tube remained green | Negative Simmons Citrate test; organism is not able to utilize citrate as a carbon source |
Methyl Red test | To determine if the bacterium produces acid in glucose fermentation as indicated by a color change from yellow to red |
MRVP broth tube Methyl Red (pH indicator) |
Color change to red | Positive Methyl Red test; organism is able to produce large amounts of acid from glucose fermentation |
Indole test | To determine if the bacterium in the SIM tube produces Indole |
SIM tube Indole |
Appearance of red ring at top of broth within 5 seconds | Positive Indole test |
DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION:
Upon proper completion of various tests and thorough process of elimination techniques, it was finalized and thus determined that Unknown A, a Gram positive, rod-shaped bacterium, was Bacillus cereus and Unknown B, a Gram negative, rod-shaped bacterium, was Escherichia Coli. The identification of both unknowns were checked and confirmed as correct by the lab professor. Luckily, only minimal problems were encountered throughout the testing and research duration. Initially, there was difficulty with several of the streak plates performed, all displaying mass overgrowth. This could have resulted from possible contamination, the plates remaining in the incubator for too long or incorrect performance of the correct quadrant streak plate technique.
B. cereus, more commonly referenced by its origin of “fried rice syndrome” that results from rice sitting out at room temperature for too long (i.e. buffets), is an endemic, soil-dwelling, Gram-positive, rod shaped and motile bacterium. Though regularly associated with food poisoning or two types of food-borne illness in humans, many cases go undiagnosed and are not reported because of the few strains that are pathogenic and pose a threat to humans. Some strains can even be constructive and used as a probiotic for animals. As a member of the genus Bacillus, B. cereus bacteria are facultative anaerobes capable of producing protective endospores that are highly resistant.
An article that was recently released, however, warned citizens of Hong Kong to avoid consuming and get rid of previously bought preserved bean curd found to be contaminated with Bacillus cereus. In a follow-up investigation, The Center for Food Safety found yet another batch to have excessive B. cereus, far exceeding safe levels for consumption and resulting in strict reminders to both consumers and distributors alike. A recall had previously been conducted, but the CFS re-iterated the importance of the trade market to discontinue selling the contaminated product that has resulted in either a diarrheal or vomiting type food poisoning. It was noted that such types of food poisoning are easily avoidable and can be prevented by ensuring food is cooked and stored properly (5).
E. coli, a predominant leader and member of the Enterobacteriaceae family, is a facultatively anaerobic, Gram-negative, rod shaped bacterium found in the lower intestinal tract of warm blooded animals. E. coli constitutes approximately .1% of normal gut flora in humans, strains proven harmless and even beneficial, contributing to vitamin production and the breakdown of food otherwise not digestible. Certain serotypes of E.coli are identified as causing severe food poisoning, on occasion leading to recall of certain contaminated food products. Other strains can become pathogenic, causing potential disease and infection, when normal flora is disturbed. Historically, this bacterium is versatile, growing in the presence or absence of oxygen and is easy to adapt to its environment or habitat.
Recent international news has directed much attention to scientists in China as further research is gathered, potentially pointing to the benefits of using E.coli in biofuel production. This is achieved “by bombarding sample of Escherichia coli bacteria with deadly heat.” (1) This unusual but effective method could set off an “evolutionary explosion” and more news is surely to come as the experiments continue.
REFERENCES:
- Chen, Stephen. “Chinese Scientists Create E.coli Superbacteria for Possible Use in Biofuels.” South China Morning Post, 26 Apr. 2015. Web. <http://www.scmp.com/tech/science-research/article/1776449/chinese-scientists-create-e-coli-superbacteria-possible-use>.
- McDonald, Virginia, Mary Thoele, Bill Salsgiver, and Susie Gero. Lab Manual for General Microbiology BIO 203 Louis Community College at Meremac (2011): pg. 10, 18-19, 28-29, 36-39.
- Todar, Kenneth. “B. Cereus Food Posioning.” Todar’s Online Textbook of Bacteriology. Madison: Kenneth Todar, PhD, 2012.
- Tortora, Gerald J., Berdell R. Funke, and Christine L. Case. Microbiology: An Introduction. Tenth ed. Pearson Benjamin Cummings, 2010. 20, 69-70, 88, 317.
- “Hong Kong Officials Warn of Bacillus Cereus Tainted Bean Curd.” Outbreak News Today. The Global Dispatch, Inc., 10 Apr. 2015. Web. <http://outbreaknewstoday.com/hong-kong-officials-warn-of-bacillus-cereus-tainted-bean-curd-24328/>.
The Link Between Depression And Coronary Heart Disease
May 8, 2015
The Link Between Depression And Coronary Heart Disease
Coronary heart disease is build up of plaque in the coronary arteries which are arteries that supply blood and oxygen to the heart muscle. This is a condition of atherosclerosis which leads to blockages. Due to the plaque the arteries will get narrow and rigid thus restricting blood flow to the heart. This causes limited oxygen and vital nutrients the heart needs to pump properly raising the risk of blood clots and heart attack.
Studies have shown that depression is commonly present in patients with CHD and is associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Available studies suggest that both major depression and elevated depressive symptoms are considerably higher among people with CHD living in the community as compared to individuals without it. There is general agreement that depression remains associated with at least a doubling in risk of cardiac events over one to two years after an myocardial infraction.
Depression has been associated with adverse cardiac outcomes. A coronary heart disease and depression study that was performed from 2002 to 2004 involved 5,936 participants. After a follow up of a little over five years, the age and sex-adjusted hazard ratios for death for this cause was 4.99 compared to participants with only CHD which was 1.67 ratio, and patients with only depressive symptoms of 2.1 ratio. In comparison with non-depressed individuals, depressed patients with CHD frequently have higher levels of biomarkers found to predict cardiac events or promote atherosclerosis.
Another study based on National Health Interview Survey data of 30,801 adults found the 12 month prevalence of major depression to be 9.3% in individuals with cardiac disease as compared with 4.8% in those with no comorbid medical illness. The study found that coexistence of major depression with chronic conditions is associated with more ambulatory care visits, emergency department visits, days spent in bed because of illness, and functional disability.
In conclusion depression has been linked with increased morbidity and mortality, poorer risk factor modification, lower rates of cardiac rehabilitation, and reduced quality of life. It has also been proven that CHD is the leading cause of death in the United States for men and women. To treat and prevent patients from having more problems with heart disease, patients that are depressed and have heart disease should be monitered regularly. Antidepressant drugs, cognitive behavioral therapy, and physical activity such as aerobic exercise are good ways to help prevent major heart incidents in people with depression. Researchers are still unsure of exactly why this occurs. But they do know that some symptoms of depression may reduce ones overall physical and mental health, increasing the risk for heart disease or making symptoms of heart disease worse.
Sources:
Lichtman, Judith, Thomas Bigger, James Blumenthal, Nancy Frasure-smith, Peter Kaufmann, Francois Lesperance, Daniel Mark, David Sheps, Barr Taylor, and Erika Sivarajan Froelicher. “Depression and Coronary Heart Disease.” 118 (2008): 1768-776. Print.
Shuja khawaja, Westermeyer, Gajwani, and Feinstein. “Depression and Coronary Artery Disease.” (January 2009): 38-51. Print
Frasure-smith, Nancy, and Francois Lesperance. “Recent Evidence Linking Coronary Heart Disease and Depression.” 51.No 12 (2006): 730-37. Print.
Et Al, Nabi. “Study Links Depression and Coronary Heart Disease.” (2010): 2. Print.
ACLS Class, Tampa | Cincinnati Stroke Scale | CPR Tampa
How to Assess for a Stroke Using the Cincinnati Stroke Scale.
Assessing for a stroke is taught in Advanced Cardiac Life Support classes. It is part of an algorithm that is covered in all ACLS classes that CPR Tampa teaches out of their Palm Harbor, Florida location.
In this video, this AHA instructor discusses the process of pre-hospital stroke assessment incorporating the Cincinnati Pre-hospital Stroke Scale.
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If you need an ACLS class in Palm Harbor or the surrounding Florida area, you can register for a class at CPR Tampa. All of our classes are stress-free and relaxed. Our AHA instructors take their time to ensure that each student is following and comprehending the required materials so they can be successful for the final skills checks and written exam.
You can take an ACLS Refresher course or a 1st Time ACLS course.
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How to Use an AED | CPR Tampa’s Palm Harbor Location
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In this video, the AHA instructor is going through the step-by-step procedure as it would be taught in a BLS for healthcare provider’s class in CPR Tampa’s Palm Harbor area. This same information is also taught in any HeartSaver CPR class. The only difference is that in a Basic Life Support class there would also be a skills test on a 2 person team rescue. In this case, one rescuer would be giving heart compressions and the other would be using the bag mask in between AED use. In the HeartSaver class only a one rescuer skills check is covered.
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